Archaeology of Viking Era Bead Production

This page is being actively updated over the winter of 2008-2009 as it has fallen behind the research. Currently I am adding information from the Ribe excavation reports. Please check back regularlyfor updates.

This page contains the archaeoligcal information underlying a series of experiments attempting to re-create the bead making techniques used by the Norse in the Viking Era.  In 2004 several of us participated in a workshop learning how to make beads using a modern torch.  While this is useful (and necessary) in learning how to work with hot glass it is not the eventual target (which is to work the glass using the same tools and techniques the norse did).

There is an amazing lack of information out there and a lot of people working on "Viking" furnaces who are doing it "because I heard from X that this is the right way".

So far I have found information for 7 or 8 sites that might be sites with bead manufacture (see below) and 1 (and only 1) location with something that might be part of a bead furnace. At Ribe there are some clay pads and hearths associated with activity layers containing bead making debris.

I haven't been looking at Staraja Ladoga in Russia which might be an additional source of information. The list of places I have been looking at includes:

Birka

• Sources: Arbman, year
• 4 Tesserae
• 1 Rod
• Unperforated beads

Paviken

• Sources: Lundstrom, 1976
• 39 Tesserae
• 9 Rods (7 monochrome) – 3 with tong marks – 0.1->0.2 cm
• Another possible Mandrill
• Crucible fragments
• Millifiore beads (and matching rod)

Helgo

• Sources: Lundstrom, 1976
• 2 Tesserae
• 2000+ shards
• 6 rods (5 monochrome) – 3 with tong marks – 0.1->0.2 cm
• Bead with end of iron rod inside it
• Crucible fragments
• Millifiore beads

Hedeby (Heiðabýr)

• Very many rods

Ribe

• Sources: Jensen 1991, Nasman 1978, Bencard et al 2004
• 705 AD – 850 ish
• unknown source: 4877 whole or partial beads, 6758 waste, 4033 tesserae, 36 rods (22 monochromatic)
• From Glass Bead Making Technology by Torben Sode in Bencard et al 2004 which refers to Bencard et al, 1990
  • 3308 pieces of glass
    • 520 monochrome whole or fragmentary beads
      • visual examination of the beads from Ribe gives no indication that any form of slip in the form of clay or similar has been used to loosen the bead from the mandrel
      • dark layer burnt to the glass... could have rubbed ... the mandrel in common salt...The iron oxide scale enables the beads to be loosened more easily. This scale is visible as a black layer lining the hole in the beads
      • indications that a forming iron or similar tool was used to give the beads a uniform shape and size
    • 139 multicoloured whole or fragmentary beads
    • 555 pieces of raw glass and glass rods
    • 825 pieces of waste from bead making
      • irregular, monochrome round, oval or square glass threads
      • polychrome threads fused together... with three, five or, seven threads...often red and white but also yellow
      • some polychrome glass threads were applied to a transparent blue base
      • fragments of chequerboard mosaic canes (blue/yellow or blue/white chequers, red frame)
      • square canes with various eyes or diamond patterns, as well as crucifer or spiral motifs
      • round polychrome mosaic rods - eyes
      • monochrome and polychrome melt drops
      • glass threads with marks from tongs or pincers
    • 762 tesserae
      • 353 from Kunstmuseets kælder (6M73 area 5)
      • roughly cubic ... usually one or more oblique sides
      • usually 5 to 10 mm square
      • blue, green, white, red, orange, yellow, violet and turquoise
      • 63 with a thin layer of gold foil between two layers of transparent glass
      • Analyses of glass composition indicate they were made in Italy
    • 507 pieces of broken blown glassware
      • from funnel beakers, globular beakers, tumblers, bowls and unidentified sources
      • size from 5 to 25 mm, thickness about 1 mm
    • 574 pieces from phase 1-1A, 704-725 AD
         99% come from Kunstmuseets kalder (6M73 area 5)
    • 873 pieces from phase 2, 725-760 AD
         65% from Dommerhaven (5M74)
    • 1267 pieces from pure phase 3, 760-800 AD
         86% coming from Kunstmuseets have (4M75)
    • 694 pieces from phase 4, later or unknown phases
  • Area 1 (6M73) Kunstmuseets have: layer 7 (phase 2): large number of glass beads, raw glass and semi-finished material (inc. mosaic canes), charcoal
  • hearth (section BA with layer numbers 39-42 between layers 10 and 11 (Bencard et al, 1990, pl. I table 2)) is associated with an activity layer (layers 11, 13 and 14) - a great concentration of glass, burnt clay and something which has been described as clay slags (Bencard et al, 1990, 30) - likely glass bead making
  • hearth (Q), layer 8 - yellow clay, burnt red on the surface. unburnt clay around hearth. seven pieces of glass and three glass slags - maybe bead making
  • east of Area 1 Kunstmuseets have (4M75) layer-accumulation 1 (phase 3): a number of activity layers separated by thin layers of sand (Bencard et al, 1990, fig. 49). see also (Bencard et al, 1990, 126, pl. XVIII table 31b) - a series of seven hearths immediately on top of each other. At least three of these hearths are thought to represent glass bead making workshops. The excavated hearths are all very irregular in shape - from circular, oval to more rectangular features. The presence of both burnt and unburnt clay is characteristic of all the hearths.
  • hearth ÆZ (Bencard et al, 1990, 95ff & figs. 54-56) - rectangular clay 53 x 23 cm, up to 5 cm thick... burnt and unburnt clay with grog. Below the hearth there was a rectangular feature of grey-brown sand with many large pieces of charcoal. There were two lumps of burnt clay in the layer of sand and unburnt clay in the activity layer. Both the hearth and the activity layer contained large amounts of glass beads, semi-finished beads and bead maker's waste together with raw glass mostly in the form of pieces of broken glassware
  • hearth UR - very irregular outline (Bencard et al, 1990, 99 & fig. 57) - a layer of charcoal and above that a layer of unburnt clay at the bottom of the hearth. This could indicate that the furnace has collapsed and that the unburnt clay comprises the remains of the furnace walls. five pieces of glass, lump of burnt clay. If this was a bead furnace, a thorough clearing up took place when the workshop was abandoned.
  • hearth UN - rectangular layer of clay, burnt red in patches, and a layer of charcoal (Bencard et al, 1990, 99 & figs. 58-59). nearby a disc of burnt clay (D10973) tuyere? indicating the use of bellows. A large quantity of glass - bead maker's workshop.
  • hearth QA, (layer XØ/AEZ may be the connected activity layer (Bencard et al, 1990, 99-102 & fig. 60)) - irregular lens shape 50 cm in dia. - middle 20 cm burnt red, with pieces of charcoal. large concentration of glass beads and raw glass around it
  • two other layer-accumulations 2 and 3 in Kunstmuseets have (4M75) - small amounts of glass together with burnt clay, ash and charcoal. no layers with identified workshops. as true in Dommerhaven (5M74) phase 2, 3 and 4. Much of the burnt and unburnt clay from here can be waste or refuse from disused furnaces or remains of clay daub building
  • Kunstmuseets kælder (6M73 area 5) - a single layer with a lot of glass bead making waste, lumps of burnt clay, clay slags, but no identified hearths
  • Tools
    • Dommerhaven, 1974 an iron rod (D 6265, Fig. 3), which was just under 30 cm long with a tapered end and remains of a handle - interpreted as a mandrel - found in square DH, level 333-47, layer Z from phase 2 (Bencard et al, 1990, 62 & 67).
    • hearth ÆZ, phase 3, Kunstmuseets have - an oval iron sheet with a raised edge and the remains of a wooden handle (D 13460, Fig. 1) - placed vertically at the bottom of the hearth (Bencard et al, 1990, 98)
    • Dommerhaven, square CP, level 300-304, layer AA from phase 4 (Bencard et al, 1990, 76f), the remains of another small round iron sheet with a raised edge was found (D 4248), (Fig. 2). A similar iron pan is known from the Scotch Street excavations in Armagh in Northern Ireland (Youngs 1989, 204), similar iron pans were also found from Garryduff I, Co. Cork and Lagore Crannog C. Meath in Ireland. On these sites the iron pans were found associated with other waste from glass production (Henderson 2000a, 147)
    • hearth QA, Kunstmuseets have - a flat round stone of granite (D 13145) - diameter of approx. 10 cm and with an indentation on one side
    • hearth UN, Kunstmuseets have (4M75) - a small spatula-shaped piece of antler (D 11019) - suggested to be the jaw of a pair of tongs for handling the finished beads
• From Nasman 1978
  • Beads: 480
    • 76% monochrome (39% blue, 24% green, 17% white, 20% red, orange, yellow, purple, clear)
    • 24% multicoloured (36% blue with red/white lines, 24% blue with other decoration, 14% reticella, 12% black with yellow lines, 5% millifiore, 9% black, white, green, yellow with different decoration
    • Multicoloured beads are mostly round, monochrome are more shapes.
    • Some Gold & Silver foil beads.
    • Note Fig 10f: half a millifiore bead (broken longitudinally)
    • Note Fig 11a-d: 4 half beads (broken longitudinally) multicoloured
    • Note Fig 12a: half a blue bead (broken longitudinally) with clay separator
  • Rods: 359
    • 59% monochrome (39% blue, 24% green, 17% red, 10% yellow, 9% white, 1% clear)
    • 41% multicoloured (44% millefiori, 34% parallel differently colored stripes, 21% reticella)
    • No dimensions provided
  • Tesserae: 370
    • 21% blue, 21% red, 15% green, 15% clear green with gold foil, 20% divided between clear, white, black, orange, brown, yellow and purple
    • No dimensions provided
  • Waste: 366
    • 41% blue, 14% multi colored, 15% green, 10% red, 20% divided between clear, white, black, orange, brown, yellow and purple
    • Chips/pieces broken off larger lumps of raw material
    • Droplets of molten glass fallen onto the floor
  • Sherds: 230
    • Mostly wall pieces, 25% edges, 2% bottoms
    • 82% light green, 11% dark green, remainder blue, clear, olive, brownish red, and purple
  • fist sized stone with a depression in the center which could have been a mortar
  • shallow metal pan ... almost completely even bottom ... short handle ... possibly used to melt glass frit
  • bone spatula
  • iron stick with conical tip and wooden handle ... possible ... mandrel. Len 29.5 cm
  • traces of pliers on ... rods
  • workshops ... very simple nature. Nothing indicates a solid construction with walls and roof. The floor was covered with a layer of sand and measured 4.4m.
  • small furnaces of fired clay are on the ground...With the furnace immediately on the ground the bead maker must have worked crouched low and squatting
• From Jensen 1991
  • Tesserae: more than 1000
  • Although it has good photos this book just simple statements about the manufacture of beads without any obious support
  • Jensen in his book about Ribe suggests that the "furnace" is the pad that was discovered plus a wall about 4 inches tall around the circumference. He shows the pan holding fragments of glass (a melting pan). In conversation with Trine (the glassworker at Ribe's living history site) she indicated that they tried this as their first reconstruction. It was pretty bad in any sort of wind - the glass just cooled too fast. Their current system puts a full dome over the furnace.

Frojel

• Sources: Calsson, 2002
• 200+ beads

Kaupang

• 2 tesserae
• 160 rods (0.05 cm -> 0.5 cm)
• Unperforated beads

Ahus (Aarhus, Arhus, Århus, Aros)

• Sources: Callmer, 1991

I'll try and put up some sketches when I have some more time.

I'll also put in some time and see if I can't find some web-based pictures of any of this stuff.
There are also a number of Old Norse words that might be applicable

glersteinar

Agate (litterally glass-stone)

Sólartár

Amber

Tala (pl. tolur)

bead(s)

hrímsteinar

Quartz (rock crystal) litterally frost-stone

hrafatinna

obsidian - black stone (perhaps usable for jet

The annotate bibliography has been moved to its own page here.